Egyptian Mythology with pics

INTRODUCTION / CREATION / LOCAL GODS /  ICONOGRAPHY / SUN WORSHIP / BURIAL RITUAL / ANCIENT EGYPT HISTORICAL IMAGE / LAND ANDRIVER / FARMING AND RURAL LIFE / FOOD AND DRINK /TOWNS AND VILLAGES / FAMILY LIFE / EDUCATION, LITERACY, AND LEARNING /CRAFT AND INDUSTRY / PYRAMIDS,TEMPLES, AND TOMBS /  ENTERTAINMENT / RELIGION AND THE AFTERLIFE /RAMSES II / KHAFRE / ISIS / OSRIS

I INTRODUCTION

Egyptian Mythology, beliefs about gods and other supernatural beings that made up religion in ancient Egypt. The religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians strongly influenced the development of their culture, although a true religion, in the sense of a unified system of beliefs, never existed among them. State religion was centred on great temples, where statues of the gods were worshipped by priests. The faith of ordinary people, by contrast, was based on an unorganized collection of ancient myths, nature worship, and a large number of gods. In the most influential and famous of Egyptian myths, a divine hierarchy is developed and the creation of the Earth is explained. However, even the greatest Egyptian myths were known in different versions in different parts of Egypt and at different times.

According to one version of the Egyptian Creation myth, only the ocean existed at first. Then Ra, the Sun, came out of an egg (or a flower, in some versions) that appeared on the surface of the water. Ra brought forth four children, the gods Shu and Keb and the goddesses Tefnut and Nut. Shu and Tefnut became the atmosphere. They stood on Keb, who became the Earth, and raised up Nut, who became the sky. Ra ruled over all. Keb and Nut later had two sons, Set and Osiris, and two daughters, Isis and Nephthys. Osiris succeeded Ra as king of the Earth, helped by Isis, his sister-wife. Set, however, hated his brother and killed him. Isis then embalmed her husband's body with the help of the god Anubis, who thus became the god of  embalming. The powerful charms of Isis resurrected Osiris, who became king of the netherworld, the land of the dead. Horus, who was the son of Osiris and Isis, later defeated Set in a great battle
and became king of the Earth.

From this myth of creation came the conception of the ennead, a group of nine divinities, and the triad,

consisting of a divine father, mother, and son. Every local temple in Egypt possessed its own divine family

group (often a triad). The greatest ennead, however (and the model for later variants of this grouping),

was that of Ra and his children and grandchildren. This group was worshipped at Heliopolis, the centre of

Sun worship in the Egyptian world. The origin of the local deities is obscure; some of them were taken over

from foreign religions, and some were originally the animal gods of prehistoric Africa. Gradually, they were

all fused into a complicated religious structure, although comparatively few local divinities became important

throughout Egypt. In addition to those already named, the important divinities included the gods Amon,

Thoth, Ptah, Khnemu, and Hapi, and the goddesses Hathor, Mut, Neit, and Sekhet. Their importance

increased with the political ascendancy of the localities where they were worshipped. For example, the

ennead of Memphis was headed by a triad composed of the father Ptah, the mother Sekhet, and the son

Imhotep. Therefore, during the Memphite dynasties, Ptah became one of the greatest gods in Egypt.

Similarly, when the Theban dynasties ruled Egypt, the ennead of Thebes was given the most importance,

headed by the father Amon, the mother Mut, and the son Khonsu. As the religion became more involved,

true deities were sometimes confused with human beings who had been glorified after death. Thus,

Imhotep, who was originally the chief minister of the 3rd Dynasty ruler Zoser, was later regarded as a

demigod. During the 5th Dynasty the pharaohs began to claim divine ancestry and from that time on were

worshipped as sons of Ra. Minor gods, some merely demons, were also given places in local divine

hierarchies.

The Egyptian gods were represented with human bodies and human or animal heads. Sometimes

the animal or bird expressed the characteristics of the god. Ra, for example, had the head of a

hawk, and the hawk was sacred to him because of its swift flight across the sky; Hathor, the

goddess of love and laughter, was given the head of a cow, which was sacred to her; Anubis was

given the head of a jackal because these animals ravaged the desert graves in ancient times; Mut

was vulture-headed and Thoth was ibis-headed; and Ptah was given a human head, although he

was occasionally represented as a bull, called Apis. Because of the gods to which they were

attached, the sacred animals were venerated, but they were never worshipped until the decadent

26th Dynasty. The gods were also represented by symbols, such as the sun disc and hawk wings

that were worn on the headdress of the pharaoh.

The only important god who was worshipped with consistency was Ra, chief of cosmic deities, from whom

early Egyptian kings claimed descent. Beginning with the Middle Kingdom (2055-1795 BC), Ra worship

acquired the status of a state religion, and the god was gradually fused with Amon during the Theban

dynasties, becoming the supreme god Amon-Ra. During the 18th Dynasty the pharaoh Amenhotep III

renamed the Sun god Aten, an ancient term for the physical solar force. Amenhotep's son and successor,

Amenhotep IV, instituted a revolution in Egyptian religion by proclaiming Aten the true and only god. He

changed his own name to Akhenaton, meaning "Aten is satisfied". This first great monotheist was so

iconoclastic that he had the plural word "gods" deleted from monuments, and he relentlessly persecuted the

priests of Amon. Although it exerted a great influence on the art and thinking of his time, Akhenaton's sun

religion failed to survive and Egypt returned to the ancient, labyrinthine religion of polytheism after

Akhenaton's death.

Burying the dead was of religious concern in Egypt, and Egyptian funerary rituals and equipment eventually

became the most elaborate the world has ever known. The Egyptians believed that the vital life-force was

composed of several psychical elements, of which the most important was the ka. The ka, a duplicate of the

body, accompanied the body throughout life and, after death, departed from the body to take its place in

the kingdom of the dead. The ka, however, could not exist without the body; every effort had to be made,

therefore, to preserve the corpse. Bodies were embalmed and mummified according to a traditional method

supposedly begun by Isis, who mummified her husband Osiris. In addition, wood or stone replicas of the

body were put into the tomb to act as a substitute in the event of the mummy being destroyed. The

greater the number of statue-duplicates in his or her tomb, the more chances the dead person had of

resurrection. As a final protection, exceedingly elaborate tombs were erected to protect the corpse and its

equipment. See Egyptian Art and Architecture.

After leaving the tomb, the souls of the dead were supposedly beset by innumerable dangers, and the

tombs were therefore furnished with a copy of the Book of the Dead. Part of this book, a guide to the

world of the dead, consists of charms designed to overcome these dangers. After arriving in the kingdom

of the dead, the ka was judged by Osiris, the king of the dead, and 42 demon assistants. The Book of the

Dead also contains instructions for proper conduct before these judges. If the judges decided the deceased

had been a sinner, the ka was condemned to hunger and thirst or to be torn to pieces by horrible

executioners. If the decision was favourable, the ka went to the heavenly realm of the fields of Yaru, where

grain grew more than twice the height of a man and existence was a glorified version of life on Earth. All the

necessities for this paradisaical existence, from furniture to reading matter, were, therefore, put into the

tombs. As a payment for the afterlife and his benevolent protection, Osiris required the dead to perform

tasks for him, such as working in the grain fields. Even this duty could, however, be obviated by placing

small statuettes, called ushabtis, into the tomb to serve as substitutes for the deceased.

This detail from an inner coffin from the period of

  the 11th Dynasty shows the journey of the ancient Egyptian god Ra. The god of the sun and creator of other deities, Ra was believed  to travel across the sky during the day, then during the night he made his way through the underworld, where he had to overcome the  monstrous serpent Apopis so that he could be born again for the new day.

  Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge/Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York

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Ancient Egypt, homeland of the Egyptian civilization, one of the earliest andgreatest civilizations, which began in about 3100 BC, flourished for over 2,000 years up until 1070 BC, andended in about 30 BC. Ancient Egyptian civilization was remarkable for its richness and sophistication, seen not only in the great monuments that to this day bear witness to the power of pharaohs and the skill of engineers, but also in its evolved system of government, the invention of irrigation and picture-writing, the

beginnings of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, and in its pantheon of deities and concepts of life after death, and great artistic skill. So much is this true that the Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the early 5th century BC, observed that "there is no country that possesses so many wonders, nor any that has such a number of works which defy description".

Modern knowledge about life in ancient Egypt is derived in large measure from the great monuments and tombs that still exist today and from the findings of archaeology, which have revealed a wealth of objects, preserved in the arid climate. A significant facet of Egyptology is the information provided by writings in hieroglyphic script; covering the walls of tombs and temples, obelisks, and columns, and found on clay tablets and in contemporary manuscripts, these writings describe various aspects of life in ancient Egypt, from the greatness of kings to medicinal cures and the minutiae of tax revenue. However, were it not for

the Rosetta Stone, this hieroglyphic script might still be indecipherable today.

Ancient Egyptian civilization began around 3,100 BC, when the kingdoms of Lower Egypt (on the Nile delta) and Upper Egypt (south of the delta) were unified by the legendary king, Menes, who ruled from the capital, Memphis. The period known as the Old Kingdom was established in 2686 BC: it was during the Old Kingdom that hieroglyphic writing developed and the great pyramids were built. The Middle Kingdom (1991-1786 BC) was a period of prosperity, when Nubia, taken by conquest, became part of the kingdom of Egypt and trade links in Asia were established. During the New Kingdom (1554-1196 BC), when the capital was moved to Thebes, the Egyptian Empire was at its greatest and Egyptian civilization reached its

zenith. (For a more detailed historical account of the country, see Egypt: History.)

 

Ancient Egypt owed its stability and prosperity to strong central government and a unifying sense of purpose driven by religious belief. Both were brought about by the power of the pharaoh: as a living god, he was the high priest of every cult in Egypt and ambassador to the gods. Under his kingship, the country was divided into 42 nomes, or districts, each of which had its own local administration and local gods. The pharaoh was supported by a huge bureaucracy of advisers and officials. Many scribes were employed to administer the land, the law, the army, and temples. They were headed by two important officials, the vizier

and the director of the seal. The vizier supervised the nomes and all officials, who reported to him; his office was also an important court of law. Eventually the role of the vizier was split in two, one vizier being appointed for Upper Egypt and another for Lower Egypt. The director of the seal was the treasurer responsible for all goods coming into the royal stores.

The pharaoh was, of course, the ultimate authority. There is little doubt that he took part in the administration, and every Egyptian, rich or poor, had the right of appeal to him. The pharaoh was accepted by all as the ultimate source of justice. He was responsible for making laws and gave lists of instructions to officials, in which it is clear that the pharaoh demanded obedience, but at the same time allowed a limited amount of autonomy.

Slavery was not common in Egypt. (It only became noteworthy during the New Kingdom, when foreign lands were conquered and their inhabitants taken as slaves.) Most ordinary people were farm labourers, some of whom worked for landowners or for the pharaoh. Many others were craftsmen who produced such everyday necessities as bricks, woven mats and baskets, papyrus, tools, utnsils, and cooking vessels. Still others were traders, or boat-owners who provided transport up and down the Nile.

Since there was no market economy in ancient Egypt, payment was made by barter. Any trade that was carried out was also done through bartering, and there was probably a considerable exchange of goods between rural and urban producers. Foreign trade was on a small scale, but did develop in the New Kingdom, with the expansion of Egyptian power. Egypt typically exported grain?its major product?linen and papyrus, in exchange for timber from Lebanon, copper from Cyprus, incense from the East, gemstones from as far away as Afghanistan, and exotic animals, such as monkeys, from the south. Incense trees were

even imported by Queen Hatshepsut for transplanting.

Life in Egypt?which Herodotus aptly described as "the gift of the Nile"?was inextricably linked to its great

river, which rises in the mountains of Ethiopia, winds through the Sudan, and flows through Egypt for

1,000 km (620 mi) before fanning out into a delta that feeds into the Mediterranean Sea. Without the Nile,

Egypt would be unrelieved desert. However, because of the river, and more specifically its flooding each

year, the Nile Valley, a narrow strip of land at no point wider than 27 km (17 mi), became an extremely

fertile area and the cradle of a great civilization. This fertile strip divides the Sahara into two: the Eastern

Desert, a mountainous region stretching as far as the Red Sea, and the Western Desert, extending far into

the heart of northern Africa. The ancient Egyptians called these desert areas Deshret ("red land"), and the

Nile Valley, Kemet ("black land"), because of the colour of its fertile alluvial soil. To the ancient Egyptians,

the desert was a foreign land into which they ventured only to obtain metals (such as gold), minerals, and

gemstones. The Nile Valley, by contrast, was their home: in this fertile green land, they were safe,

protected by a host of gods who would unfailingly ensure the punctual onset of the annual flood.

Seasonal rains falling in Ethiopia swelled the upper reaches of the river, with the result that huge quantities

of silt, rich in nutrients, were carried downstream and deposited over the plain of the Nile Valley. The height

of the flood was important: if it was too low, there might be a famine; if it was too high, the alluvial

deposits that fertilized the land would be carried beyond the cultivated strip to the barren desert, where the

soil was too poor to produce a good harvest. The Nile flood was important too because its beginning (in

July) marked the start of the Egyptian year and coincided with the reappearance of Sirius in the night sky.

This star was associated with Isis, the goddess whose tears were believed to cause the flood. The

agricultural year was divided into three seasons: the flood; the "going out", or sowing, season; and the

harvest. The civil year was divided into 12 months, each with 30 days, 5 extra days being added at the end

of every year.

The importance of water was universal in Egyptian society and the responsibility for its management rested

on all people, from the pharaoh, for the taxation it indirectly yielded, to village communities, who probably

organized local initiatives, and peasants, who needed to grow their food and pay taxes. The height of the

Nile flood was recorded each year on nilometers, steps which led down to the river in increments of cubits

to measure the water level. This meant that the state bureaucracy could assess the potential of the

harvest, and thus the rate of taxation. All land belonged to the pharaoh, and all taxes were paid to him,

apart from that on lands given as gifts to courtiers and temples.

The flood covered the valley floor, leaving villages as isolated islands. After it had receded, however, water

had to be kept from running off the fields, or from evaporating before it had fully soaked into the soil.

Crops also had to be watered. The Egyptians developed a system of irrigation canals, and, during the New

Kingdom, invented the shadoof. This device comprised a bucket attached to a long wooden beam resting

on a fulcrum, which allowed water to be raised up to about 2 m (6 ft). This was an important innovation

that allowed the Egyptians to increase the amount of land under cultivation by about 15 per cent.

In September, when the flood waters began to recede, the yearly round of farming began. Irrigation

channels had to be repaired and land boundaries, important for calculating tax, had to be remeasured.

Much of this work was carried out by corv? or enforced labour. Once it was completed, sowing could begin.

The main crops were wheat, barley, and flax, which was grown for weaving into linen. The cereal crops were

sown by spreading the seeds by hand; animals were used to tread them into the ground. Planting took

place in October using light wooden ploughs drawn by oxen, or hoes. After planting, work did not stop,

since irrigation channels had to be maintained and the crops had to be protected from pests.

The harvest began in April. Wheat was gathered after the overseers of the crops had calculated the

expected yield for tax purposes. This was then compared to the actual yield, in order to make sure that

none of the crop was dishonestly retained. The crop was then taken to threshing floors where oxen or

donkeys trod on it to separate the grain from the straw. After winnowing, the grain was transported to

granaries, where it was stored for later consumption. Most of this grain was used to make bread, but some

was used as seed corn for the next crop.

Given the fertility of the valley soil, it was possible for a second crop to be planted, usually vegetables or

pulses. Other vegetables and fruits (such as figs and dates) were grown on garden land. Trees were

planted, for timber was scarce in Egypt, and vines were cultivated, although wine was generally drunk only

by the wealthy. Large numbers of livestock?cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry?were also kept, while

donkeys were used as the principal transport animals.

Generally, the diet of Egyptians seems to have been diverse, although the type of food tended to vary with

the social standing of individual households. The staple food of peasants was cereals, which were used to

make bread, originally baked in open fires before the development of crude ovens. Bread dough was also

used to make beer, the common drink which the Egyptians were credited with inventing.

The diet of those further up the social scale generally consisted of vegetables and fruits?among which

beans, chickpeas, lentils, and figs were the most common?and fish, which the Nile provided in abundance.

Meat was rarely eaten by ordinary people, perhaps only during festivals, and of this beef seems to have

been the most common. The rich, however, may have eaten meat (such as antelope and gazelle) regularly,

and, indeed, had a much more varied diet, perhaps taking three meals a day, as opposed to the normal two

for peasants. Preserved in the tomb of a minor noble at Thebes is the menu of a funerary meal which

included porridge, cooked quail, kidneys, pigeon, boiled fish, beef, bread, cakes, stewed fruits, and cheese.

Because the banks of the Nile have been occupied continuously

from ancient Egyptian times to the present day, most ancient Egyptian towns and villages lie deep beneath

an accumulation of occupation levels and cannot be archaeologically investigated. However, the remains of a

village, Deir el-Medina, at Thebes, and the royal capital Ahketaten (known today as El-Armana), halfway

between Memphis and Thebes, have provided a considerable amount of evidence. Most communities seem

to have developed with no formal planning, and were often walled for protection. Different areas of these

communities were populated by members of different social classes; areas with large mansions and tranquil

gardens contrasted with others in which poorer people lived in aggregations of smaller dwellings separated

by narrow alleys, although there was no strict segregation.

The typical Egyptian house was built from mudbricks, made by combining clay with straw, the walls

rendered inside and out with plaster, which was whitewashed, both for decoration and reasons of hygiene.

Floors were generally of compacted clay covered with reed mats to prevent dust rising. Ordinary houses

typically consisted of three to seven rooms with working areas on the ground floor, living accommodation,

and a staircase leading to a small area over the bedrooms on the roof, which may have been used as a

kitchen. Windows were usually small, in order to let very little sunlight through while permitting hot air to

escape. They may also have been north-facing to allow cool air to penetrate the house.

The houses of the rich were much more luxurious, with as many as 60 or 70 rooms, and walled gardens

filled with sycamore trees to provide shade in the strong sun. These houses had more storeys: working

areas on the ground floor, living areas on the first floor, possibly also a harem, and bedrooms on the

second floor. Also contained in the enclosure around the house were workshops, animal stalls, and storage

areas. On an entirely different scale again were the royal palaces and temple estates, which were vast,

sprawling communities within themselves.

Marriage often took place at an early age, 12 or 13 in the case of girls, and about

20 in the case of men. Marriage within family groups was relatively common, although the relationship was

usually distant?brother-sister marriage was rare. It was also normal to marry within the same class.

Although no religious importance was attached to marriage, it was entered into in a serious manner.

Marriage contracts developed, and were well established by the New Kingdom, which recorded the names of

the individuals and of the dowry, or "wife-gift", usually consisting of jewellery or corn. Although husbands in

Egypt seem to have treated their wives well, some marriages were not happy and ended in divorce. The

most common grounds for divorce seem to have been infidelity of the wife (never the husband)?adultery

was considered a serious offence?or the inability to bear children. Like marriage, divorce was a private

arrangement, although the husband's obligation to provide for a wife continued even after divorce, when he

had to give a proportion of his earnings to her. Married women also enjoyed full property rights so that, on

the death of her husband, a woman inherited his property.

While men performed all hard labour, whether in the fields or in crafts or other industries, a married women

was the mistress of the home, taking responsibility for its efficient running, the upbringing of children, the

provision and safe storage of food, the baking of bread, and the brewing of beer. In low-status households

everything to do with home management was women's concern, and they very rarely performed any public

function, although they were often to be found managing inns or working in textile workshops. They may

also have performed services as doctors or musicians in temples. Making and washing clothes was an

important household task. Egyptian clothes were generally made of linen and were very light. Men habitually

wore short kilts, which were practical both for the climate and for hard work, their skins having adapted to

the sun. Women wore clothes that covered most of their bodies. These included long close-fitting dresses

and tunics, which became increasingly ornate with time. Both men and women wore jewellery, make-up, and

wigs, although highly ornate items were only to be found among the rich.

Education in ancient Egypt depended on social class. The children of low-status families learnt their skills

from their parents. On tomb reliefs children are often shown helping in fields with simple farm tasks. Boys

acquired additional skills from their fathers or other male relations, often as apprentices in certain crafts or

professions; girls learnt such domestic skills as weaving, brewing, and bread-making from their mothers.

The teaching of reading and writing was normally reserved for the children of wealthy families, who might go

on to work in the state bureaucracy. Most teaching was performed by scribes, and one result of this was

that the profession of a scribe became hereditary.

Writing was taught using tablets, ostraca (broken pieces of pottery), or occasionally papyrus on which

pupils copied and repeated the many different symbols of the hieroglyphic script, in both the cursive and

the more formal form found on tomb and temple walls. Some of these ancient school-exercises have been

found, and they become more common in the Graeco-Roman period (c. 330 BC-AD 284), when education

became a little more widespread. Literacy, however, always remained the privilege of a small, educated elite.

Elementary mathematics were also taught, and it seems likely that the Egyptians were able to solve

elementary equations. Their understanding of geometry must have been fairly advanced to permit them to

build such impressive monuments.

The principles of life were taught from treatises known as Books of Instruction which emphasized the

importance of wisdom, justice, obedience, piety, fairness, truthfulness, and, above all, humanity. All

combined to produce a humane society with a strong sense of justice.

Science, astronomy, and medicine were also studied, albeit within the framework of Egyptian religious

beliefs. Astronomy was important for religious observances, as well as the calendar, and was relatively

advanced, so that eclipses of the Sun and Moon were not regarded as abnormal, and one papyrus

mentions an early sighting of a comet that was probably Halley's comet. Mathematics was studied, and

alchemy practised, in addition to medicine, probably the most important branch of science in ancient Egypt.

A number of papyri have been found which list ailments and their cures. Many of these illnesses can be

identified by their symptoms, and when combined with evidence from tomb painting and statues, a picture

of the Egyptians in health and in sickness can be established, which can be further supported by

palaeopathology?the medical inspection of mummies. Dust-borne diseases, often of the eye, were common

and there is evidence of tuberculosis, which was no doubt spread by the cramped living conditions in towns.

Parasitic and water-borne diseases were also common, because of the environment of canals and

slow-moving waters. Although poor hygiene encouraged the spread of disease, the Egyptians' sound staple

diet did much to reduce its threat.

For ordinary people who were not farmers, there were many crafts and industries. In many cases, these

were often hereditary trades, but young men were given apprenticeships.

Pottery and glass-making developed steadily and reached their zenith in the New Kingdom, in the case of

pottery, with the development of the pottery wheel. Glass-blowing was not developed in Egypt until the 1st

century AD. Carpenters and cabinetmakers were hampered by the very short supply of timber in Egypt,

with the result that most of the wood used was imported from the Middle East. Thus wooden objects were

often expensive, and were usually reserved for the rich. It is no accident, therefore, that we know much

about Egyptian furniture, because it is frequently depicted on the walls of tombs which, by definition,

belonged mainly to the rich.

Spinning and weaving were ancient crafts, indeed the oldest known article of clothing comes from Egypt and

dates to c. 3000 BC. The development of textile workshops, often run by women, and of a vertical loom in

the New Kingdom, meant that the textile industry grew in importance. Other developments in technology,

such as foot-bellows, led to increased output and specialization in metalwork, which, in the New Kingdom,

included the casting and engraving of metal objects. Of metals, copper was the most common, and bronze

was introduced later. Gold was very expensive, but was found in Egypt, making imported silver rarer, and,

therefore, more valuable.

Craftsmen with more specialized skills were involved in the manufacture of jewellery, in which precious

metals, gemstones, glass, enamels, and clay beads were used, and in painting, sculpture, and the design

and construction of great monuments built to the glory of the pharaohs and to the great state gods. These

men worked under favourable conditions, enjoying an elevated status and considerable royal patronage.

Sailing was an important profession in ancient Egypt. The Nile provided the only practical means for

transporting goods up and down the country, as towns 1,000 km (over 600 mi) apart were never more

than a kilometre or so from its banks. Each year the Nile floods created dangerous new currents and eddies

as silt deposits shifted on the river bed. Many literary papyri detail the exploits and heroism of shipwrecked

sailors, or those caught in storms.

The construction of the great monuments of ancient Egypt usually took place during the time of the Nile

flood, when farming was impossible. It was not, as is often thought, undertaken by gangs of slaves

working in an oppressive environment. There is little evidence of forced labour, and the absence of soldiers

on reliefs depicting the building of these monuments suggests that conditions were not unduly harsh,

although the work was physically demanding. Not only was it performed by order of the pharaoh, a living

god; the afterlife was also of great concern to the Egyptians and the construction of great tombs for their

kings was of paramount importance

Vast quantities of stone were quarried (either locally or, in certain cases, several hundred kilometres from

their eventual destination) and hauled by teams of men to the Nile, where they were loaded on to ships.

Herodotus relates that it took 20 years to build a pyramid, possibly with teams of 20,000 men working

three- or four-month shifts. The construction of such great monuments involved an enormous effort,

especially considering the relatively simple tools, lifting equipment, and mode of transport available to the

Egyptians. Communal work during the inundation was also an important part of taxation, especially for the

poor, who could not afford to give up any of their harvest to pay taxes. Just as 90 per cent of the

population were engaged in agriculture, so 90 per cent were freed to work on state projects during the

inundation.

The construction of temples, with their colossal columns, statues, and obelisks of granite, limestone,

diorite, or more rarely alabaster, was a similarly large-scale undertaking. The stone, in pieces that could

weigh up to 800 tonnes, was crudely carved to a rough shape at the quarry so as to make transport

easier, and carved to its final shape on the construction site. The draughtsmen and painters who decorated

tombs and temples were also highly skilled, working to given artistic conventions and using grids to ensure

the correct proportions of figures which illustrated the lives of pharaohs and their consorts, and peopled

illustrations of traditional stories, episodes from mythology, and scenes from everyday life. In many cases,

designs were essayed or roughed out on ostraca, and these have given Egyptologists an insight into the

methods that the Egyptians used for painting the walls of tombs and temples.

A rare insight into life in ancient Egypt during the construction of a complex of major monuments is given

by contemporary records kept by scribes during the 18th and 19th dynasties (1540-1186 BC) in Deir

el-Medina, a village on the west bank of the Nile.

At this time, the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings, their tombs cut into the living rock, and

the chambers and passageways decorated with paintings and reliefs. The masons, painters, and artisans

who worked in the Valley of the Kings and formed the small community at Deir el-Medina worked directly for

the pharaoh, supervised by his chief minister, the vizier. Scribes also lived in the village, and made careful

records of work and everyday life: among this material is a record of the first known strike, in 1152 BC,

called by these workmen because of delays in their monthly payment of grain.

Life in ancient Egypt was not unremittingly arduous. One proverb ran: "Be merry all your life. Work no more

than is necessary." Holidays were frequent, and there were many festivals during which the atmosphere,

although of religious importance, would have been light. Dancing and music were popular. Many tomb

paintings depict women playing flutes, trumpets, oboes, harps, lutes, and such simple percussion

instruments as clappers or rattles. It is difficult to know what this music sounded like, but it is possible that

it lay somewhere between modern Arab music and modern African music. Men enjoyed sports such as

wrestling, boxing, fencing, and running, the last two figuring often in royal festivals. Hunting in the desert,

for such animals as gazelle, or in the marshy delta area for fowl, was hugely popular as a sport, and for

poorer members of Egyptian society it provided an extra source of food. Entertainment was available in the

many beer houses, where there was much singing, dancing, and playing of board games, which were

extremely popular. Such pastimes were no more sedate at the banquets of the rich, where unrestrained

drinking and eating were the norm.

As they were to most other aspects of life in ancientEgypt, the Nile and the Sun (Ra) were central to Egyptian religion. The Sun was held to have created the river itself, and both are linked to myths of the creation. The Nile was considered a sacred river: it had no visible source and little or no rain fell in Egypt, yet the river flooded each year and sustained life. Concepts

of the creation were diverse and different gods were worshipped in different cities.

All Egyptian cities were under the protection of three gods (see Egyptian Mythology). The Triad of Thebes

was Amon, Amunet, and Khonsu. Amon, the principal deity of the triad, was a relatively minor god until

Thebes became the capital of Egypt during the New Kingdom. In the New Kingdom he was identified with

Ra, and as Amon-Ra, the sun-god, was the imperial god of Thebes and the personal god of the pharaoh.

Ptah, god of creation, was the principal deity at Memphis, and Osiris, ruler of the underworld, was especially

associated with Abydos.

Besides Ra (creator of the universe), Mut (goddess of the sky and often the divine mother of the reigning

pharaoh), Amon, Ptah, Osiris and his wife Isis, the principal gods were Horus (god of the sky), Seth (evil

incarnate), Hathor (goddess of the sky and queen of heaven), and Anubis (god of the dead). The temples

that were dedicated to them were treated as their abodes and, as such, could be entered only by priests

and the pharaoh. Great festivals were held in their honour: the pharaoh himself led the celebrations,

escorting the statues of the gods through streets lined with worshippers towards temples decorated with

flags and streamers. While most ordinary people probably worshipped the less-elevated local deities at

shrines in their homes, these festivals were national holidays and state occasions in which all participated.

Many of the principal gods were associated with certain animals, and, in wall paintings, engravings,

manuscripts, and statuary, they were depicted either as animal-headed or in animal form: for example,

Anubis is often depicted as jackal-headed and Horus in the form of a falcon. Living animals associated with

gods were sacred: for example, cats were sacred to Bast, goddess of love and fertility; crocodiles to Sobek

(often identified with Amon or Ra), and ibises (scribes of the gods) to Thoth, god of the Moon. In later

periods large numbers of these sacred animals were mummified (see Embalming) and placed in royal tombs.

It is because of the richness of these royal tombs, notably that of Tutankhamen, that so much is known

today about the Egyptians' funerary rites and their belief in the afterlife. Even in pre-dynastic times,

funerary gifts were placed in graves to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. Mummification ensured that

the body was preserved (a prerequisite for life after death) and burial rites were performed to ease the

passage of the soul into the afterlife. The preservation of the dead person's name on the walls of his or her

tomb was also considered important, for its erasure was enough to condemn the deceased to obscurity.

Judgement was delivered by Osiris, who weighed the deceased's heart against a feather, the symbol of

Maat, god of truth and order. The soul of the deceased became a star travelling across the heavens, but

the afterlife was also believed to be a continuation of life on Earth. This obsession with the afterlife was

based not on a morbid fascination with death but rather on a desire to prolong the life which the Egyptians

loved so much. Many of their names, and much of their culture and history, have been preserved, in certain

ways ensuring the eternal life which they so desired.

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The pharaoh, supported by advisers and officials, was the supreme ruler in ancient  Egypt. He was considered to be a living god, ambassador to the gods, and the high priest of every cult in the land. This statue is of  the pharaoh Ramses II, at the Great Temple of Amon in Luxor.

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The life-size stone statue of Khafre (c. 2530 BC), from Giza, was carved from a solid block of  diorite, the hardest stone available at the time of the Old Kingdom in Egypt. The piece stands 165 cm (66 in) high, and is an  idealized representation of the king, with strong geometric lines and dramatic proportions.

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This painting can be found in the tomb of Inherkha. A priest wearing the  mask of Anubis, god of mummification, is proffering a bowl of holy water to the mummy. The purpose of the ceremonial Opening of  the Mouth was to restore to the deceased the use of the senses, thus restoring life in the next world.

  E. Strouhal/Werner Forman Archive

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In Egyptian mythology Isiswas the goddess of motherhood and fertility. She is shown in this relief sculpture at the Chapel of Osiris in the temple of King Seti I at Abdyos. Isis worship lasted until the 6th century  AD, when the last temples were closed following the widespread adoption of Christianity.

    Osiris, one of the principal deities in Egyptian mythology. He was originally the local god of Busiris and

  later of Abydos, which long remained the centre of his cult. He represented the male productive force in

  nature, and became identified with the setting Sun. Thus he was regarded as the ruler of the realm of the

  dead in the mysterious region below the western horizon.

  Osiris was the son of Geb and Nut, and the brother and husband of Isis, goddess of the Earth and Moon,

  who represented the female productive force in nature. According to a version of the story recorded

   around AD 100 by the Greek writer Plutarch, Osiris, as King of Egypt, found his people plunged in

  barbarism and taught them law, agriculture, religion, and other blessings of civilization. He was murdered

  by his evil brother, Set, who tore the body to pieces and scattered the fragments. Isis found and buried

  his scattered remains, however, and each burial place was thereafter revered as sacred ground. Their son

  Horus, sired by a temporarily regenerated Osiris, avenged his father's death by killing Set and then

  ascended the throne. Osiris lived on in the underworld as the ruler of the dead but, through Horus, he

  was also regarded as the source of renewed life.

The Egyptian mythological figure Osiris lived in the

  fabled underworld as the ruler of the dead. He is shown here centre, with the jackal-headed Anubis, another god of the dead. This  depiction dates from the 18th Dynasty in Egypt and is in the Museo Egizio in Turin, Italy.